11.Rail, Air and Water Transport

11.1 Characteristics of Rail Transport

The greatest advantage of a railway over a road is the saving in tractive effort. The resistance of steel tyres on steel rails is of the order of 0.5 percent of the load, compared with about 2.5 percent for rubber tyres on good road surfaces.

Rail transport has its advantage in transporting large consignments of bulk products over long distances. As the vehicles are confined to a limited network of tracks rail transport is often less convenient than road transport. Environmentally rail transport is far less polluting than road, particularly if the rail system is electrified. The accident rate for rail transport is also far less than for road transport.

Rail transport suffers from a lack of convenience, the need to double handle consignments and the inability to provide door to door service.

11.1.1 Transport Tasks Most Suited to Rail

The following transport tasks are those most suited to railways:
• haulage of large quantities of bulk commodities e.g. coal, iron ore, bauxite, grain, etc.;
• unit train operation – point to point transport of a load of cattle, military equipment, vehicles, etc.;
• long distance traffic – non-stop fully loaded trains with nothing to unload or load between the origin and the destination; and
• suburban passenger traffic with large numbers of people e.g. peak hours for a large metropolitan area.

11.1.2 Transport Tasks Least Suited to Rail

The transport tasks least suited to rail are:
• long distance passenger transport, particularly when sleeping accommodation is required;
• parcels and small package transport;
• less than wagon load consignments;
• short freight trips; and
• stop-start train operation such as stopping every 10 km to pick up or set down wagons.

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

11.2 Location and Design

A fundamental characteristic of normal duo-rail (or two rail) systems is the gauge of the railway. The gauge is the distance between the inside or running faces of the rails. The accepted standard gauge is 1.435 m (4 ft 8 in imperial measure). Broader gauges of 1.52 m and 1.60 m are also used. Narrow gauge (1.067 m) is used in Queensland.

The planning and design of railways follows similar methods to those used for roads, but greater limitations on grades and curvatures exist. The use of curved track is required in all but very flat country, but the total amount of curvature needs to be kept to a minimum. Curvature results in reduced speeds and increased wear on rail and rolling stock.

The greatest constraint on design is the need to strictly control gradient. A ruling grade is the steepest slope over which a fully loaded train can be hauled by one locomotive from a standing start. This is not necessarily the steepest grade which may be used, as some momentum from a moving train may be used to overcome grade resistance.

In bridge design the main difference between a rail bridge and a road bridge is that the live load in the case of rail bridges is a large proportion of the total load whereas in road bridging the dead load predominates. The result is that in rail bridge design greater attention needs to be given to the effects of impact and fatigue.

11.3 Earthworks, Formation and Drainage

• Right of Way – the strip of railway property, which may or may not be fenced. Total width of the reservation for a single track is typically 40 m, increased to 60 m where stations and sidings are located.
• Formation – the prepared surface on which the ballast is placed (also known as roadbed, or subgrade).
• Formation Width – distance between the edges of the prepared surface.
• Cess – part of the formation between the ballast and the embankment edge (also known as formation shoulder).
• Sleeper – a beam passing under the rails of the permanent way, providing support for the rails, and holding them at the correct gauge.
• Rails – rolled steel sections with a flat bottom flange, and a heavy head on which the steel wheels of trains run.
• Ballast – material placed on formation to support the sleepers, and to distribute the load from the track structure to the formation.

Top

11.4 Track Materials

11.4.1 Ballast

Ballast consists of clean, durable, preferably angular crushed rock. The specification for ballast will usually stipulate grading requirements (–38 + 9 mm is typical) and abrasion and crushing properties. An important requirement of ballast is its ability to pack to provide a stable track foundation. Ballast must also be free draining.

11.4.2 Sleepers

In Australia sleepers are cut from durable native hardwoods, in sizes of about 2.15 m x 115 mm x 230 mm for most uses, but increased to 150 mm depth for heavy haul lines. If termites or decay are likely to be a problem, the sleepers must either be cut from a resistant species, or treated with preservatives. The life of a sleeper varies from about 10 to 25 years depending on timber type, location, climate, etc. Prestressed concrete and steel sleepers are also being used where it is economical to do so.

11.4.3 Rails

Rails are manufactured to an Australian Standard and are designated by their weight per lineal metre. Lighter rails for branch lines may be as light as 21 kg/m, but the typical rail section is 41 to 47 kg/m for urban rail and 53 to 60 kg/m for heavy haul railways.

11.4.4 Fastenings

Fastenings include the means on joining rails together, and of attaching the rails to the sleepers.

Individual rail lengths may be joined by using two rolled angle sections called fish-plates. Fish-plates are usually about 760 mm long and have 6 holes through which fishbolts are passed (3 through each rail end). In addition to joining the rails, provision is made within the fishplated joint for thermal expansion and contraction of the rail. A fishplated joint has about 40 to 50% of the strength of the parent rail, and these joints are a major maintenance problem.

The fastening of rails to sleepers may be achieved in a variety of ways. The simplest attachment is formed by driving a 16 mm square dogspike into a 16 mm diameter hole. In the easiest method of rail attachment, four dogspikes are driven into each sleeper (one each side of each rail). As axle loads and speed increases, greater holding power than dogspikes will be required. For heavy traffic, and/or for small radius curves, the rails will be laid on sleeper plates. These plates spread the load from the rail and also allow composite action from all dogspikes in resisting rail movement.

In recent years there has been a trend towards indirect elastic fastenings. These devices provide sufficient force to clamp the rail and sleeper so that rail creep is controlled, and they are sufficiently flexible to prevent the fastening being loosened in the sleeper (which does occur with dogspikes).

For smooth riding the number of joints between rail sections should be minimised. Modern practice is to weld up long lengths of rail prior to laying using flash-butt welding. In the field these lengths may be joined to form continuous rails by the Thermit welding process. Great care must be taken to ensure the correct length of rail is used to form a continuous rail. A neutral rail temperature must be established for the area and the rail laid at this temperature or with allowance for the temperature variation. Rail heaters and coolers are often used for rail laying operations to achieve neutral rail temperature.

11.5 Switches, Crossings and Crossovers

A crossover is a connection between two parallel tracks and comprises two sets of points with two crossings. A crossover will be either left or right handed (depending on whether it is has two left hand or two right hand leads). When one track simply crosses over another, a diamond crossing is required. If a turnout from one track to the other is also provided, it is known as a slip.

Turnouts require a set of points and these are known as facing or trailing points depending on their operation with respect to the direction of travel. Facing points may be used to divert traffic into the lead when moving along the line in the direction of travel. Trailing points become facing points when travelling in the opposite direction to the main direction of travel. For single track railways, where travel occurs in both directions, a set of point will be facing for one direction of travel and trailing for the opposite direction of travel.

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

11.6 Signalling

• Train Order


Orders are received by the train crew via a telephone or radio from a central train control centre, which has the track divided up into sections of up to 160 km. Safety of the system is totally dependent on the train controller as no signalling or interlocking safety devices are used.

• Staff and Ticket


This system requires the train crew to be in possession of a token (staff) before the train proceeds onto a single line section between crossing stations. The staff is carried by the last train over the section to then allow an opposing train to proceed onto the section. Staff and ticket is used as the safeworking method where the traffic density increases beyond the 12 trains per day that can reasonably be handled by a train controller.

• Electric Staff


Again the staff must be in the possession of the train crew before the train can proceed onto the single lane section. The staves vary in shape of head and colour and are housed at each crossing station in instruments which are electrically connected by wiring and operated in such a manner that only one staff can be withdrawn from either instrument applying over the section. Electric staff working normally applies to single lines where there are 20 or more trains per day.

• Centralised Traffic Control


This method allows for operation of points and signals from a remote location and total track detection and indication. Trains proceed according to a favourable signal indication, operated from the centralised traffic control centre. The two main benefits from CTC systems are the reduction of station staff and the increased operational efficiency of trains.

11.7 Alternative Forms of Railway

11.7.1 Light Rail Systems (Tramways)

Light rail systems use vehicles with steel wheels on steel rails and the rail system is duo-rail. Both the vehicles and the rails are of lighter construction than those in a traditional rail system. Often light rail systems will not have an exclusive right of way and will operate on partially segregated or non-segregated routes. They are passenger rather than freight oriented. In Australia, light rail systems would often be referred to as tramways. Light rail systems are usually characterised by the following:
• overhead electricity supply system;
• non-automated, manually driven vehicles;
• articulated vehicles to reduce swept area and to improve curving ability;
• where the system is integrated with normal road transport, grooved rails flush with the road surface;
• cost-effective passenger transportation for 5,000 – 15,000 per hour in the peak direction; and
• passenger stations at 250 m to 1000 m spacing.

LINKS TO SITES ON LIGHT RAIL

The Wikipedia entry on Light Rail gives details on many aspects of light rail systems and vehicles.

11.7.2 Monorails

As the name implies monorail systems use a single guidance rail rather than the traditional two rail system. Monorail systems take one of two forms:
• where the vehicle sits astride the single rail; and
• where the rail is elevated and the vehicles are suspended below the rail.
Several monorails have been built in different countries around the world but they generally are of fairly limited length and capacity. The concept of using a monorail for a large urban rail system has not been used at this time.

One aspect of monorails, particularly those where the vehicle is suspended below the rail, is that they are likely to have a high visual intrusion. This has initiated against their adoption in several cases.

LINKS TO SITES ON MONORAILS.

The Monorail Society has a Web site which gives details of monorail systems around the world, and argues for monorails as a viable form of public transport. Their Monorails of Australia page gives three examples (including photos) of monorail systems within Australia.

11.7.3 Rack Railway

The rack railway is a specialised type of railway which enables gradients in excess of those usually negotiated with steel wheels on steel rails. The system uses a third cogged rail laid between the normal running rails, and pinions on the train engage the cogged rail. This type of railway has been used in mountainous regions, particularly in Switzerland.

11.7.4 Cable Lines

For gradients too steep for even a rack railway, a cable may be used. These cables are set either between or beneath the tracks and are able to haul railed vehicles up a very steep incline. In some instances two vehicles of similar weight are linked by cable. When one vehicle is at the base of the line, the other is at the summit. The vehicles balance each other as they ascend and descent respectively. If only a single track is provided a passing loop is required at the centre point.

11.7.5 Pneumatic Tyred Trains

Pneumatic tyred trains use rubber tyred vehicles on two parallel strips of concrete or other supporting system. The pneumatic tyred train has the advantage that it is quiet (a distinct advantage in underground tunnel systems) and gives a smooth ride. The major disadvantage is that by using a pneumatic tyre it develops a rolling resistance comparable to that of a road vehicle. The three major systems which use this technology are Paris, Montreal and Mexico City, and are basically underground railways.

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

11.8 Australian Railways

Railway operations in Australia are a combination of both Government and privately funded systems. Both carry approximately the same amount of traffic but, since government railways operate mainly multi-purpose, low density lines, the resources within the government sector required to finance the transport task are comparatively much greater.

The major private sector railways of Hamersley Iron and Mt. Newman Mining in north-west Australia are high density, single product lines, operating to the highest international standards.

The main functions of both public and private rail operators in Australia are freight rather than passenger oriented. About seventy-five percent of total earnings come from freight operations, seventeen percent from passenger operations and the remainder from miscellaneous activities.

The physical location of railways in Australia closely mirrors the development of the continent with coastal centres operating as terminii for inland areas. An important feature of the Australian system is the variety of gauges which is a remnant of the development of colonies prior to Federation. There are three principal gauges in use in Australia – narrow (1067 mm), standard (1435 mm) and broad (1600 mm). Although it is now unlikely that Australia will ever convert all its railways to standard gauge, there is a continuing programme of upgrading main interstate routes to standard gauge where traffic volumes are significant.

11.8.1 Freight Transport

• Bulk Hauls


On many railway systems there are examples proving that rail can transport materials in bulk in a manner which is efficient and cost effective.

• Non-bulk Freight


While the cost of transport is important, the high intrinsic worth of much non-bulk freight means that a lot of emphasis is placed on the quality of the transport service, particularly reliability. Australian rail systems have for a long time suffered from institutional problems (work practices, industrial relations problems, organisational structures, etc.) which have made them not very efficient in this area.

• Less-than-carload and Parcels Tasks


Most Australian railways offer reasonable less-than-carload and parcel services of reasonable quality and at low rates. However this traffic is often carried at considerably below its cost.

11.8.2 Passenger Transport

• Rural Local Passenger Task


There are still some places where rail motors and mixed trains provide rural train services as they have for generations. However these generally run at considerable loss. Over the last few decades there have been many services of this type which have been closed down, usually accompanied by heated political debate.

• Urban Passenger Task


This is a task that rail performs well although often at a financial loss. The transport of large numbers of peak period commuters in metropolitan areas is probably best handled by rail and can usually operate at a profit. However the need to provide off-peak services when patronage can be relatively small, and institutional problems, make the whole urban passenger task one where it is difficult to achieve complete cost recovery by fares.

• Intercity Passenger Task


At present air travel dominates the public transport component of the non-urban passenger task. However there is significant potential for rail to play an increased and improved role in this area. The criteria that probably have to be set for success to occur are:

• high quality rollingstock and associated services (e.g. bookings);
• journey times between capital cities of around 8 hours;
• commercial average speeds of 100 km/hr or more;
• intensive utilisation of expensive rolling stock;
• train sizes of more than 200 seats and occupancy rates greater than 75 percent; and
• entertainment for travellers.

LINKS TO SITES ON AUSTRALIAN RAILWAYS.

11.9 High Speed Railways

LINKS TO SITES ON HIGH SPEED RAILWAYS.

11.10 Air Transport

Today, air transport is the major public transport carrier of inter-capital city passengers, and plays a major role in intra-state passenger transport.

Air transport has two distinctive characteristics:

• it is the fastest mode of transport available over long distances (due to use of a very fast moving vehicle and an almost direct line of travel); and
• it is generally the most expensive mode of transport over any distance.

11.11 Air Traffic Control

• the position of each aircraft must be known at all times; and
• safe separation distance between aircraft must be established and maintained. The problem of fixing the position of an aircraft may be complex.

Air traffic control usually divides airspace into one of three types:

• terminal airspace, in the vicinity of airports, where movements are controlled by ground located air traffic controllers;
• airways, which are designated flight paths between terminal airspaces or airports; and
• uncontrolled airspace.

A flight begins with the pilot filing a flight plan which details departure time, flight route, altitude, destination, etc. The flight plan must account for the anticipated weather conditions along the route, and the load to be carried. When the flight is ready to commence the air traffic controller advises the pilot by radio when taxiways and runway may be used. Once the aircraft is airborne a climb-out path from the airport is indicated by the air traffic controller. This climb-out path depends on factors such as the aircrafts performance and load, wind speed, and restrictions on noise, etc. On reaching a predetermined height the aircraft turns onto the first airway and climbs to cruising height.

Aircraft flying along airways in opposite directions are separated in altitude:

• up to 8700m, by 300m; and
• above 8700m, by 600m.

LINKS TO SITES ON AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL.

11.12 Airports

11.12.1 Site Selection

The task of selecting an acceptable site for a new airport can be very difficult. Not only must technical, economic and financial factors be considered, but the often intangibles of social, political and environmental issues must be addressed. This is particularly true in areas where population density is reasonably high and/or where land use is intense.

The technical factors to be considered include:

• Safety Factors
• Topography
• Foundation Conditions
• Usability
• Noise
• Extension Possibilities
• Navigational Aids
• Land Use Compatibility

11.12.2 Runway Configurations

Each runway is numbered, indicating its magnetic alignment. For example an east-west runway would be designated 09–27: 27 at the eastern end (270×); and 9 at the western end (90×).

The choice of runway configuration depends on a number of factors, including:

• Traffic
• Wind
• Slope
• Avoidance of Bird Hazards
• Runway Length
• Environmental Factors

11.12.3 Runway Length

The length of runway required depends on:
• the type of aircraft which will use the runway;
• the maximum weight of aircraft (as weight increases, so the length of runway required increases);
• aircraft trip length (longer trips require more fuel, and hence heavier weights);
• airport elevation (the higher the elevation above sea level the less the atmospheric pressure, the less the lift and the longer the runway required);
• airport temperature (the higher the temperature, the thinner the air, the less the lift and the longer the runway required);
• surface winds (headwinds decrease the take-off length, tailwinds increase the take-off length);
• runway gradient; and
• runway surface (smooth asphalt means shorter take-off length than grass).
Average runways for major airports are about 2500 to 3500 m in length, when the airport is at sea level.

LINKS TO SITES ON AIRPORTS.

Planning and development of a new airport can be a very lengthy task. This is well illustrated by the attempts to select a site for Sydney's second airport. The history of the proposal is detailed in a Parliamentary Background Paper ' Second Sydney Airport - A Chronology ' by Paula Williams.

Top

11.13 Water Transport

Goods moved by sea may be categorised into:

• dry bulk cargo;
• liquid bulk cargo; and
• general cargo.

• Displacement tonnage – the weight of water the ship displaces in accordance with Archimedes’ Principle. This equals the total weight of the ship plus all that it contains.
• Deadweight tonnage – a measure of the load that the ship is designed to carry, i.e. cargo, passengers, stores, etc. This is the difference between the displacement tonnage when the ship is fully loaded and unloaded.
• Gross Registered tonnage (GRT) – a measure of the total cubic capacity of all enclosed space. In this case the ton is taken as 100 cubic feet.
• Net Registered tonnage (NRT) – the gross registered tonnage less space required to run the ship e.g. machinery space, crew’s quarters, etc.

The development of specialist ships such as bulk cargo ships, and the introduction of containerisation has helped to achieve greater port efficiency for loading and unloading ships.

11.14 Ship Types

However ships do fall into a relatively small number of distinct groups, usually related to the task which they are designed to perform. Some of the common types of commercial ships are:

• General Cargo Ships. Generally these are of modest size, mostly under 15,000 GRT. They ‘fill the gaps’ left by more specialised vessels, but are still the most common type of vessel for goods transport. One advantage of general cargo ships is that they can be switched between different types of haulage, and therefore may have a greater usability than more specialised vessels.
• Container Ships. These vary greatly in size, depending largely what route they are operating. Ships operating on larger international routes would often have a capacity of 2000 containers, of which about 300 would be carried as deck cargo. Smaller ships used on shorter routes may have a capacity of only 300 containers. The ships may be provided with gantry cranes if they are likely to use ports inadequately equipped with heavy lifting gear. Because of their high volume, high speed and relatively high port turnaround, container ships can carry many times the cargo of a general cargo ship in a year.
• Large Crude Carriers. The largest of these vessels are known as Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC) and Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC). These ships range in size from 250,000 to 400,000 tons and are designed to operate from oil-producing countries to a limited number of ports in consuming countries. Design is based on ensuring stability of the large volume of liquid cargo. To prevent excessive surging of the liquid when the ship rolls and pitches, a series of separate compartments is used to hold the liquid. A feature of tanker operation is their relatively quick turnaround and they consequently can spend a large proportion of their time at sea.
• Dry Bulk Carriers. In concept these are similar to large crude carriers, although they are usually less than 200,000 dwt (deadweight tons).
• Ro-ro Ships. Roll-on, roll-off ships are designed to minimise the time of loading and unloading of general cargo by allowing it to be driven on and off the vessel. Loading is generally through a stern door with ramps to different levels. Some ships will also incorporate an opening bow which permits a movement of vehicles through the vessel. Ships of this type may need specialist port facilities, although the need for complex lifting equipment is dispensed with.

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

11.15 Liner Trades and Shipping Conferences

Where several liner companies operate over the same route, it is common for them to form an association known as a conference . Basically, a conference is simply a meeting of all the liners serving any particular route, for the purpose of achieving a regular pattern of sailings to give the maximum service to shippers and to reach common agreement on rates.

Conferences range from informal agreements to well developed organisations with permanent secretariats. Shippers rely on liner services for their transport needs, just as the shipping lines depend on the shippers for their trade. This mutual support is necessary if liner operators are to make large investments in new ships. To make such investments liner operators desire protection against competitors who might undercut prices for a relatively short time and then disappear from the business. Hence the voluntary system of liner conferences has evolved.

Conferences may be 'open' where entry is not restricted but where new members must adhere to freight rates, or 'closed ' where entry is limited by the conference itself. Because of the monopolistic nature of conferences, Australian shipping conferences require exemption by the Federal Government from the restrictive trade provisions of the Trade Practices Act.

11.16 Ports and Harbours

The term port refers to a portion of a harbour which acts as the base for commercial activities.

Harbours may be classified into the following broad categories:

• natural harbours, where protection is offered by natural topographical features;
• seminatural harbours, where protection is given on the sides by land but which require artificial protection to be constructed at the entrance; and
• artificial harbours, where construction of breakwaters and jetties is required to provide suitable protection against wave action.

• sufficient depth for the size of vessels to be accommodated;
• protection against destructive wave action; and
• the bottom should furnish a secure anchorage.

Investigation for harbour sites must collect information on the following aspects:

• wave exposure – height, direction and frequency of occurrence;
• natural protective features;
• water depth;
• sediment movement;
• tide range;
• land base area available; and
• expansion potential.

LINK TO THE PICTURE GALLERY

LINKS TO SITES ON PORTS

Page last modified 28 June 2010.